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تطوير تكنولوجيا الكاميرا .. تقنية الكاميرا .. المرشد خطوة بخطوة للتصوير الفوتوغرافي
The development of camera technology
This section is also worth studying if you are thinking of buying a camera . It will highlight features that may affect your photography , so you can assess the various models and prices more critically . The general trend is for cameras and the pictures they take to be made steadily smaller . The first popular camera , invented by George Eastman ninety years ago , took 100 pictures 23ins wide . It even had to be returned to the manufacturer when each film was used up , to be opened and have the film developed and printed . Some years later , Thomas Edison , working on an instrument for making movies , used Eastman Kodak rollfilm slit down the middle - so it became 13 ins ( 35 mm ) wide . He cut perforations down each side for transporting it through the camera and projector . Much later , in 1924 , an employee of E. Leitz , the German microscope manufacturers , designed a little camera for taking still pictures on lengths of this 35 mm motion picture film : it was called the Leica , the first precision 35 mm camera the most popular modern format .
- Up until World War II however , most family cameras used rollfilm from box cameras to precision types such as the Rolleiflex . Serious photographers used even larger cameras , taking plates ( and later , sheet film ) . 35 mm cameras were not very popular , because prints made by contact from the tiny negatives were too small . Lens quality was poor unless you bought the most expensive 35 mm models . So the " miniature " film was unable to resolve really fine detail , and gave disappointing enlargements . To measure exposure you had to use tables , or a meter the size of a modern cassette tape recorder .
During the 1950s and 60s , improvements in lens optics and the production ( mostly in Japan ) of precision single lens reflex cameras made the 35 mm camera the world's most versatile and popular design . Improvements in precision optics still continue- today's even smaller , 110 - size camera ( using 16 mm wide film ) will eventually offer all the facilities of 35 mm . Provided that final prints are of equally good quality , a smaller , handier camera will always have great appeal .
In 1948 the first instant picture camera system was invented ( see p.210 ) . This camera and special film offer the tremendous advantage of allowing you to check results on the spot , and if necessary take the picture again . There are disadvantages : camera size is directly linked to picture size ; materials are expensive ; and for serious photography , image manipulation is very restricted , particularly since on the majority of systems you do not retain a negative but get a print direct .
Deciding on a camera :
- Choosing a camera today can be as easy or difficult as choosing a car . What sort of work do you want to do with it ? How much can you afford for both the equipment and the materials ? Which type and shape of camera design suits you best ? If you intend to do a lot of photography you are likely to spend more on film than you spent on the camera . Film 35 mm wide in 36 exposure lengths is still cheaper per picture than either rollfilm or 16 mm wide 110 film , in its convenient but costly drop - in cartridge .
In the 35 mm camera range , designs using a separate ( non- reflex ) viewfinder system are cheaper than the mechanically more complex single lens reflex . But look ahead - will you soon want to buy extra lenses ( discussed on pages 92-9 ) , or other special attachments ? If so , a reflex camera backed up by a whole system of lenses and accessories would be a better choice .
Having decided the size and type of camera you need , think hard about what you can afford . Cameras are now so competitive that you generally get what you pay for . Current catalogs will show three or four different brands at each of several price levels . How will you spend your money - on a really good camera body and normal lens , for additions later ? Or on a cheaper model together with several lenses ?
Narrow down the two or three camera models you can afford , and then actually handle each one of them . If you can , borrow a camera of the model you are considering buying , to make sure it suits you . You must consider features such as size and weight ; how easy you find the viewing and focusing ; the speed and convenience of changing aperture and shutter settings ; even the way the camera " sits " in your hands .
Most cameras have excellent built - in light meters and these are worth comparing ( see pp.40-1 ) . You can even buy a camera with a " fully automatic " meter , which takes over all exposure decisions on a programed basis . This is efficient and convenient ; but long term it will prove restrictive . You don't know what settings are being made , and cannot give a selective exposure for a part of a subject , or intentionally over- or underexpose for particular effects . Perhaps a camera offering the choice of automatic or manual metering is best . You can learn to use the manual settings , creatively exploiting the various side - effects they produce . But you can still switch to automatic for quick shots when a generally correct exposure is all you need .
Don't overlook reliability . It is very depressing to find that a whole film has turned out blank , because the shutter stuck , or the film failed to wind on . Often reliability is reflected in price , so it really is worth buying the best camera you can afford . A well known make is a reasonable guarantee of quality .
A thorough understanding of your camera will give you confidence and control when you start work on the important picture making aspects of photography , in the next section . So use this section to make yourself completely familiar with the basic tools of photography , and particularly with your own camera's range and limitations . The four Steps in this section are : the basic camera ; the camera controls ( focusing , aperture , shutter ) ; controlling picture sharpness ; and measuring exposure . Information on more advanced equipment and accessories is given in the section beginning on page 89 , and further details of camera types in the Appendix .
The development of camera technology
This section is also worth studying if you are thinking of buying a camera . It will highlight features that may affect your photography , so you can assess the various models and prices more critically . The general trend is for cameras and the pictures they take to be made steadily smaller . The first popular camera , invented by George Eastman ninety years ago , took 100 pictures 23ins wide . It even had to be returned to the manufacturer when each film was used up , to be opened and have the film developed and printed . Some years later , Thomas Edison , working on an instrument for making movies , used Eastman Kodak rollfilm slit down the middle - so it became 13 ins ( 35 mm ) wide . He cut perforations down each side for transporting it through the camera and projector . Much later , in 1924 , an employee of E. Leitz , the German microscope manufacturers , designed a little camera for taking still pictures on lengths of this 35 mm motion picture film : it was called the Leica , the first precision 35 mm camera the most popular modern format .
- Up until World War II however , most family cameras used rollfilm from box cameras to precision types such as the Rolleiflex . Serious photographers used even larger cameras , taking plates ( and later , sheet film ) . 35 mm cameras were not very popular , because prints made by contact from the tiny negatives were too small . Lens quality was poor unless you bought the most expensive 35 mm models . So the " miniature " film was unable to resolve really fine detail , and gave disappointing enlargements . To measure exposure you had to use tables , or a meter the size of a modern cassette tape recorder .
During the 1950s and 60s , improvements in lens optics and the production ( mostly in Japan ) of precision single lens reflex cameras made the 35 mm camera the world's most versatile and popular design . Improvements in precision optics still continue- today's even smaller , 110 - size camera ( using 16 mm wide film ) will eventually offer all the facilities of 35 mm . Provided that final prints are of equally good quality , a smaller , handier camera will always have great appeal .
In 1948 the first instant picture camera system was invented ( see p.210 ) . This camera and special film offer the tremendous advantage of allowing you to check results on the spot , and if necessary take the picture again . There are disadvantages : camera size is directly linked to picture size ; materials are expensive ; and for serious photography , image manipulation is very restricted , particularly since on the majority of systems you do not retain a negative but get a print direct .
Deciding on a camera :
- Choosing a camera today can be as easy or difficult as choosing a car . What sort of work do you want to do with it ? How much can you afford for both the equipment and the materials ? Which type and shape of camera design suits you best ? If you intend to do a lot of photography you are likely to spend more on film than you spent on the camera . Film 35 mm wide in 36 exposure lengths is still cheaper per picture than either rollfilm or 16 mm wide 110 film , in its convenient but costly drop - in cartridge .
In the 35 mm camera range , designs using a separate ( non- reflex ) viewfinder system are cheaper than the mechanically more complex single lens reflex . But look ahead - will you soon want to buy extra lenses ( discussed on pages 92-9 ) , or other special attachments ? If so , a reflex camera backed up by a whole system of lenses and accessories would be a better choice .
Having decided the size and type of camera you need , think hard about what you can afford . Cameras are now so competitive that you generally get what you pay for . Current catalogs will show three or four different brands at each of several price levels . How will you spend your money - on a really good camera body and normal lens , for additions later ? Or on a cheaper model together with several lenses ?
Narrow down the two or three camera models you can afford , and then actually handle each one of them . If you can , borrow a camera of the model you are considering buying , to make sure it suits you . You must consider features such as size and weight ; how easy you find the viewing and focusing ; the speed and convenience of changing aperture and shutter settings ; even the way the camera " sits " in your hands .
Most cameras have excellent built - in light meters and these are worth comparing ( see pp.40-1 ) . You can even buy a camera with a " fully automatic " meter , which takes over all exposure decisions on a programed basis . This is efficient and convenient ; but long term it will prove restrictive . You don't know what settings are being made , and cannot give a selective exposure for a part of a subject , or intentionally over- or underexpose for particular effects . Perhaps a camera offering the choice of automatic or manual metering is best . You can learn to use the manual settings , creatively exploiting the various side - effects they produce . But you can still switch to automatic for quick shots when a generally correct exposure is all you need .
Don't overlook reliability . It is very depressing to find that a whole film has turned out blank , because the shutter stuck , or the film failed to wind on . Often reliability is reflected in price , so it really is worth buying the best camera you can afford . A well known make is a reasonable guarantee of quality .
A thorough understanding of your camera will give you confidence and control when you start work on the important picture making aspects of photography , in the next section . So use this section to make yourself completely familiar with the basic tools of photography , and particularly with your own camera's range and limitations . The four Steps in this section are : the basic camera ; the camera controls ( focusing , aperture , shutter ) ; controlling picture sharpness ; and measuring exposure . Information on more advanced equipment and accessories is given in the section beginning on page 89 , and further details of camera types in the Appendix .
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